How and In What Ways Information Technology Has Changed How We Essay

How and In What Ways Information Technology Has Changed How We Collaborate - Essay Example Information technology, which is a core element of information, has influenced many aspects of organizations. First, the adoption of IT has led to changes in the organizational structures. The organizational structure refers to the arrangement of authority and communication relationships as well as a workflow in an organization (Kirst-Ashman & Hull, 2008; Golembiewski, 2000). The type of organizational structure influences the level and nature of collaboration in the organization. Hierarchical organizational structures limit collaboration because they tend to focus on top-down collaborations. However, flat organizational structures enhance collaboration across the organization because people from different levels or different departments within the same level can communicate easily. The integration of IT into organizations has influenced the transformation of organizational structures from the hierarchical structures that prevailed before the development of IT to flat organizational structures with little hierarchical levels. Therefore, with the adoption of IT, the barriers to communication and collaboration that existed in organizations because of the hierarchical structure were eliminated or reduced. Organizations that have adopted IT have increasingly reduced the hierarchical levels in favor of flat structures. In a flat organization, people working in the different departments can easily communicate without having to follow the strict hierarchical and bureaucratic systems of communication and authority.

Exponential Decay of a Transition Metal Complex Ion Lab Report

Exponential Decay of a Transition Metal Complex Ion - Lab Report Example It has shown that the rate of alpha, beta, and electron capture decays all depend on temperature and whether they are placed in an insulating or a conducting material. Thats exciting because it raises the possibility of treating radioactive waste products. But it also raises a problem for particle physicists whose entire standard model assumes that decay rates cannot be influenced by external factors. The two are unrelated, so no there is no relationship between the two properties. I dont think temperature has anything to do with the nucleonic states, only the kinetic energy of the electrons in a solid. So temperature should have no effect on half life. In fact, temperature and chemical changes have no effect on the decay of nuclides. The only way to change the half life is to move it at relativistic speeds and then it becomes a matter of which reference frame you measure it in. In fact for the frame at rest with the nuclide there is no change in half life at relativistic

Environmental Impacts Of Large Dams Environmental Sciences Essay

Environmental Impacts Of Large Dams Environmental Sciences Essay About 48000 large dams have been built as a response to meet energy or water need. Nearly half of the worlds rivers have at least one large dam. One-third of the countries in the world rely on hydropower for more than half their electricity supply, and large dams generate 19% of electricity overall. Half the worlds large dams were built exclusively or primarily for irrigation, and some 30-40% of the 271 million hectares irrigated worldwide rely on dams. There are dams on nearly half of the rivers of the world (Table 2.6). Six percent of the energy consumed in the world is produced from hydraulic power. Additionally, hydraulic power is in the second rank within the renewable energy sources and every year it increases 4 percent in the world. Dams whose height is more than 15 meters are referred to as big dams. Clearly, dams can play an important role in meeting peoples needs (Table 2.7). Table 2.6. Distribution of Dams on the World Continent Number of Dams Percentage of the total Africa 1269 2.7 Asia 31340 65.8 America 8989 18.8 Europe 5480 11.5 Australia 577 1.2 Total 47655 100 Source: World Commission on Dams, Dams and Development, 2000. There are always two opinions about dams the supporters talk about the economic benefits of irrigation, electricity generation, flood control and water supply, the opponents highlight the adverse impacts of displacement and impoverishment of people, destruction of ecosystems and fishery resources, and possibility of disaster if the dam breaks. Environmental Impacts of Large Dams Land and water are ecologically linked in a natural system called a watershed. From the smallest droplet to the mightiest river, water works to shape the land, taking with it sediment and dissolved materials that drain to watercourses and, in most cases, eventually to the sea. The river is a product of the land it flows through the type of rock and soil, the shape of the land, and the amount of vegetation are some of the factors that determine the rivers shape, size and flow. When a large dam is constructed, these ties between the land and the river are broken and the consequences are felt throughout the watershed, as well as by the web of life it supports. Some 40,000 large dams, most of which were built in the past 50 years, now obstruct the worlds rivers. More than 400,000 square kilometers an area larger than Zimbabwe, have been inundated by reservoirs worldwide. The worlds largest impoundment, the 8,500 sq km Volta Reservoir behind Ghanas Akasombo Dam, flooded 4% of that nations land area. An internal survey of hydroelectric dam projects by World Bank has shown that 58% of the dams were planned and built without any consideration of downstream impacts. Table 2.7. Countries having the Biggest Dams according to Size and Function Rank Countries having Biggest Dams Ranking with respect to Dams Function Electrical Energy Water For Drinking and Daily Use Irrigation Flood Protection 1. China China USA China China 2. USA USA United Kingdom India USA 3. India Canada Spain USA Japan 4. Spain Japan Japan Korea Brazil 5. Japan Spain Australia Spain Germany 6. Canada Italy Thailand Turkey Romania 7. Korea France South Africa Japan Mexico 8. Turkey Norwegen Brazil Mexico Korea 9. Brazil Brazil France S. Africa Canada 10 France Swedish Germany Albania Turkey Source: World Commission on Dams, Dams and Development, 2000. The following are a few serious environmental impacts of dams: . (i) Effects on River Systems Reducing the flow of water from a river changes the landscape it flows through, which in turn can affect the ecosystems flora and fauna. A dam holds back sediments, especially the heavy gravel and cobbles. The river, deprived of its sediment load, seeks to recapture it by eroding the downstream channel and banks, undermining bridges and other riverbank structures. Riverbeds are typically eroded by several meters within a decade of first closing a dam; the damage can extend for tens or hundreds of kilometers below a dam. Riverbed deepening lowers the groundwater table along a river, threatening vegetation and local wells in the floodplain and requiring crop irrigation in places where there was previously no need. The depletion of riverbed gravels reduces habitat for many fish that spawn in the river bottom, and for invertebrates such as insects, molluscs and crustaceans. Changes in the physical habitat and hydrology of rivers are implicated in 93% of freshwater fauna declines in North America. Before construction of the Aswan Dam in Egypt, the Nile River carried about 124 million tons of sediment to the sea each year, depositing nearly 10 million tons on the floodplain and delta. Today, 98% of that sediment remains behind the dam. The result has been a drop in soil productivity. The Aswan Dam has also led to serious coastal erosion, another problem stemming from the loss of sediments in a dammed river. Another example of this problem is along the mouth of the Volta River in Ghana. Akosombo Dam has cut off the supply of sediment to the Volta Estuary, affecting also neighboring Togo and Benin, whose coasts are now being eaten away at a rate of 10-15 meters per year. (ii) Hydrological Effects Dams change the pattern of the flow of a river, both reducing its overall volume and changing its seasonal variations. The nature of the impacts depends on the design, purpose and operation of the dam. All parts of a rivers ecology can be impacted by changes to its flow. A rivers estuary, where fresh water meets the sea, is a particularly rich ecosystem. Some 80% of the worlds fish catch comes from these habitats, which depend on the volume and timing of nutrients and fresh water. The alteration of the flows reaching estuaries because of dams and diversions is a major cause of the precipitous decline of sea fisheries in the Gulf of Mexico, the Black and Caspian Seas, Californias San Francisco Bay, the Eastern Mediterranean and others. (iii) Changes to Flooding The storage of water in dams delays and reduces floods downstream. River and floodplain ecosystems are closely adapted to a rivers flooding cycle. The native plants and animals depend on its variations for reproduction, hatching, migration and other important lifecycle stages. Annual floods deposit nutrients on the land, flush out backwater channels, and replenish wetlands. It is generally recognized by biologists that dams are the most destructive of the many abuses causing the rapid disappearance of riverine species. About 20% of the worlds recognized 8,000 freshwater species are threatened with extinction. The first effect of a dam is to alter the pattern of disturbances that the plants and animals of a river have evolved for. Many aquatic animals coordinate their reproductive cycles with annual flood seasons. Every flood is valuable in that it takes nutrients from the land and deposits them in the river, providing food for the streams residents. Floods also provide shallow backwater areas on vegetated and shaded riversides; the young of many animals depend on these backwaters to protect them from large predators.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As an example, a fish on a certain river may only reproduce during April of every year so that its offspring will have abundant food and places to hide. If the flood never comes because a dam holds the river back (because people want the water for themselves), the offspring may be produced during a time when they cannot possibly survive. If the fish can wait until the next flood, which may be in July, its young will be born during the wrong time of year, and will have to contend with the absence of their normal food supply and temperatures for which they are not prepared. Vegetation, too, depends upon these regular cycles of flood. Quite often, people will decide that they can spare no water at all and no flooding will occur. Or they may have built the dams specifically to stop flooding, so they can build houses in the floodplains. When this happens, riparian vegetation, the vegetation bordering the river, changes forever. (iv) Removing Sediment   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Another reason that riverbeds become scoured and armored is that dams remove all the sediment from the river. It is natural that the river, which is accustomed to carrying sediment and now has none, will pick up the sediment from the streambed below the dam. It is almost as though the river has been starved of its sediment. As in everything else in nature, balance will be achieved one way or the other, often at the expense of one or more species.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The sediment in a dammed river reaches the slow-moving reservoir above the dam and drops out, settling behind the dam. Each dam is engineered to withstand the force of a particular amount of water (this may be very very large). The dam is not engineered to withstand the additional force of tons of wet sediment pressing on the backside. The muddier the river, the faster this heap of sediment will build up. When it builds up very high, either the dam bursts, killing people and destroying settlements downstream, or the reservoirs water pours over the top of the dam. The river downstream of the dam will be like a dead river. It will not have a living river ecosystem filled with fish and birds. The water will be starved of nutrients and provide little or no habitat for animals. In addition, animals that once used the muddiness of the rivers water to conceal them from predators are now overly vulnerable to predation, and may quickly go extinct. A river with dams eventually becomes little more than a dead channel of water. (v) Starving the River   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Dams hold back not only sediment, but also debris. The life of organisms (including fish) downstream depends on the constant feeding of the river with debris. This debris includes leaves, twigs, branches, and whole trees, as well as the organic remains of dead animals. Debris not only provides food, it provides hiding places for all sizes of animals and surfaces for phytoplankton and microorganisms to grow. Without flooding and without a healthy riparian zone, this debris will be scarce. Adding to the problem, although debris might come from the river above the dam, it is instead trapped in the reservoir, and never appears downstream. The bottom level of the food web is removed. All in all, the loss of sediment and debris means the loss of both nutrients and habitat for most animals. (vi) Changing Temperature Temperature is another problem. Rivers tend to be fairly homogenous in temperature. Reservoirs, on the other hand, are layered. They are warm at the top and cold at the bottom. If water is released downstream, it is usually released from the bottom of the dam, which means the water in the river is now colder than it should be. Many macro-invertebrates depend on a regular cycle of temperatures throughout the year. When this is changed, their survival is threatened. (vii) Erosion The typical practices in a hydroelectric station are to release large amounts of water in powerful surges during the day in order to provide electricity when demand and prices are highest, and to cut down flow during the night in order to replenish reservoirs for the next day. The cyclic floods caused by this popular practice contribute to the extinction of many species like the salmon by flushing away their spawning gravels during the day and leaving them high and dry at night. Riverbeds become scoured, stripped of their organic materials, sediment, vegetation, and macro-invertebrates. (viii) Stopping Fish Migration   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Fish passage is a concern with dams. Many fishes must move upstream and downstream to complete their lifecycles. Dams are often built without fish ladders. When fish ladders are provided, they seldom work as needed. If enough adult fishes do manage to climb above a dam, there remains the issue of their young: how will they get back downstream? Predators kill many while they wander, lost, in the reservoir above the dam. Many are killed in their fall downward through the dam to the river below. They arent killed by the fall itself, but by the high levels of nitrogen gas at the base of the dam.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are many fishes that cannot climb dam ladders or leap over low dams. Some of these fishes swim upstream every year to breed, and then let the water carry them back downstream. The eggs of pelagic spawners float downstream, too, which is why the adults must swim far upriver to breed. Otherwise, the baby fish would soon end up in sea. (ix) Social Impacts of Dams: Conflict with people The most important social impact of a dam is displacement of people. The forced removal of people from their homes and the land by which they make a living has been the tragic consequence of dams. Although the people are offered resettlement, the situation leads to disintegration of self-identity and place-connection for both individuals and communities. The social connections are lost and the people find it hard to recover a sense of belonging to both community and the physical environment that supports their existence. The major issues related to displacement are summarized below: Effect Biogeophysical impacts Social impacts Primary (direct) Flooding of reservoir Water diversion and hydrological changes Soil compaction and paving Mountain top removal and stream filling Reduction/depletion of minerals and species Deforestation Creation of barriers to species migration Eviction and resettlement Labour camps Loss of resource due to construction and/or flooding Secondary (indirect) Landslide, flood, and earthquakes from dams Water quality decline Soil salinisation Loss (or gain) of fish and wildlife populations Ecosystem changes leading to pest problems or disease Aquifer disruption causing problems downstream Loss of fish species leads to loss of migratory bird species Loss of access to resources and property Unemployment with project completion Psychosocial stresses Creation of new identities Urbanization as labour camps become permanent Unsustainable agriculture in resettlement area leading to soil erosion Ethnic conflict due to resettlement The inundation of the river valley has significant adverse social impacts by blocking access to natural and social resources of the river valley. This puts pressure on the ecosystem, as fewer resources are available to serve the needs of the population located within the region. Increased competition for commonly held resources, such as wild fruits and vegetables, timber, fodder and firewood, disrupts the subsistence routines of riverine populations. This has the impact of forcing people to forge in new areas that may be further from their homes in and/or in locations that are used by other groups for either similar or conflicting purposes. The dams also seriously affect human health through the spread of disease. For instance, schistosomiasis and malaria proliferate in areas around the still water of dam reservoirs. Beyond creating habitat for disease vectors, dams have been linked with the spread of non-communicable diseases like mercury poisoning. The increase in disease is also attributable to the influx of migratory workers during the time of dam construction. The overall social impact of a surge in disease in communities is to increase social malaise and to circumscribe livelihood opportunities. The process of displacement has affected most the weaker sections of the people in India. The scheduled tribes and castes and backward caste people constitute a large chunk of the displaced people. Women and children suffer the maximum in any displacement. The conditions of people displaced by the various dams in the Narmada have attracted the attention of the Supreme Court of India, and it is observed that the measures at resettlement and in making provision for civic amenities in the new settlements are far below expectation. The total number of people displaced by dams is estimated to be 40 80 million throughout the world a substantial number of these people are Indians (the estimates vary, but the figure is likely to be around 4.4 million people). The people get compensation, but the process is often long-drawn, and sometimes, the actual sufferers are not getting true value for the losses incurred. These are inadequate when compared to the permanent loss of livelihood, and the social and mental cost of displacement. Large Dams in India At independence, in 1947, there were not more than 300 large dams in India. By 2000, the number grew to over 4000, more than half of them built between 1971 and 1989. India ranks third in the world in dam building after US and China. While some of these dams were built primarily for flood control, water supply, and hydroelectric power generation, the primary purpose of most Indian dams (96 percent) remains irrigation. In fact, large dam construction has been the main form of investment in irrigation undertaken by the Indian government. However, much controversy has evoked since 1980s with the Sardar Sarovar Project on the Narmada when the people started asking questions on the social, environmental, and economic costs of dams and their benefits. Most irrigation dams in India are embankment dams. They consist of a wall built across a river to impound water forming a reservoir upstream and a system of spillways and gates to bypass the wall to maintain normal flow and the impounded water flows to canals feeding agriculture fields downstream. People living in the upstream catchment area, lose property and livelihood and gain very little, while people living in the command area (downstream) gain the most from irrigation. Between 1951 and 2000, Indias production of food grains increased fourfold, from 51 million tonnes to about 200 million tonnes resulting in considerable foreign exchange savings in food grains import, and making India a food grain surplus or at least self-sufficient country. About two thirds of this increase has been attributed to rise in irrigated areas, 35 % of which are irrigated by dams. Case Studies The world is building more dams every year. New dams promise more electricity and at the same time, they are devastating to others. A few case studies are briefly described below: The Enawene Nawe, Brazil The Enawene Nawe, a small Amazonian tribe (over 420) who live by fishing in Mato Grosso state, Brazil, is a relatively isolated people. They grow manioc and corn in gardens and gather forest products, like honey but fishing is their main livelihood and fish are a vital part of their diet, as they are one of the few tribes who eat no red meat. During the fishing season, the men build large dams across rivers and spend several months camped in the forest, catching and smoking the fish which is then transported by canoe to their village. For decades, the Enawene Nawe has faced invasion of their lands by rubber tappers, diamond prospectors, cattle ranchers and more recently soya planters Maggi, the largest soya company in Brazil, illegally built a road on their land in 1997 (this was subsequently closed by a federal prosecutor). Although their territory was officially recognized and ratified by the government in 1996, a key area known as the Rio Preto was left out. This area is tremendously important to the Enawene Nawe both economically and spiritually this is where they build their fishing camps and dams, and where many important spirits live. Now, up to 11 dams are planned along the Juruena River, which flows through the Indians territory. The dams will be funded by a consortium of businesses, many of whom are involved in the soya industry. The Enawene Nawe is opposing the dams, and has launched an appeal for support to halt the construction. The Penan, Malaysia In 2008, a leaked map exposed the huge dam plans of the national electricity company in Sarawak, Malaysia. The local Penan people, who are familiar with destructive interference from outsiders, now face a new challenge to their land and livelihoods. Blueprints were accidentally posted on the internet for dams that will submerge homes and villages. To make matters worse, these dams are projected to produce far more electricity than Sarawak uses. The Borneo forests The island of Borneo, a fragile treasure house of rainforests, rare animals and plants, is under threat from plans for Chinese engineers to build 12 dams that will cut through virgin land and displace thousands of native Dayak people. The government of the Malaysian state of Sarawak says the dams are the first stage of a corridor of renewable energy that will create 1.5 million jobs through industries powered by safe, clean hydro-electricity. Campaigners are furious but appear powerless in the face of a project they fear will compound the devastation wrecked on Borneos peoples and land by previous dam projects and the felling of its forests. They point to the ruin caused by the levelling of millions of acres of trees for oil palm plantations to meet the worlds demand for biofuels. The dams would slice across a vast sweep of Sarawak, a place where wisps of cloud cling to remote, tree-clad peaks, huge butterflies flit through the foliage and orang-utans, sun bears and leopards roam. The Bakun dam, a separate project due to be completed by 2011, has already displaced an estimated 10,000 indigenous people, leading to bitter legal battles and a chorus of dismay from economists about cost overruns. For all that, it may be too late to save the natural bounty of Borneo itself. Orphaned orang-utans, piteously holding the outstretched hands of their human saviours, are the most conspicuous symbols of its fragility. Divided between Malaysia and Indonesia, with Brunei occupying a tiny enclave in the north, Borneos riches have ensured its plunder. One reason is the voracious world demand for timber. The other is the biofuels made from palm oil. Almost half of Borneos rainforests have been cut down. Two million acres have vanished every year as trees are felled, the wood sold and the land turned over to oil palms. Enormous fires cast a perpetual pall of toxic haze, making Indonesia the worlds third largest greenhouse gas polluter after China and the United States. Green gold, or palm oil, poses an even more insidious threat because it promises prosperity and development to the numerous poor of Borneo along with immense rewards for the elites. The vegetable oil comes from crushed palm husks. Long used for cooking, cosmetics and soap, it has now become a principal source of biodiesel fuel. Malaysia and Indonesia produce about 85% of the worlds supply of palm oil most of it from Borneo. The price of this apparently environment-friendly fuel is high as the damages far outweigh the benefits. All over Sarawak, tribal people have lost their ancestral lands to similar gambits. The situation in India Bhakra-Nangal Dam This dam is situated in the town Bhakra in Punjab and is Asias biggest dam. The dam is built on the Sutlej River. It is 225.55 m high above sea level. The dam is 518.25 m long and 304.84 m broad. Its huge reservoir known as the Gobindh Sarovar, stores up to 9621 million cu m of water, enough to drain the whole of Chandigarh, parts of Haryana, Punjab and Delhi. It has 4 floodgates, which are fully functional during the period of floods, and also has 2 power- stations situated on either side of the dam. Each of the power plants comprise of 5 generators, and a power station. The total electricity produced in both the generators is 1325 MW. The Narmada River Dams The Narmada River originates from the Maikal ranges at Amarkantak, 1057 m above the sea-level, now in Shahdol district of Madhya Pradesh. The river flows for 1312 km through the three states of Madhya Pradesh (MP), Maharashtra and Gujarat before falling into the Arabian Sea. The valley has been the seat of an uninterrupted flow of human civilization from pre-historic times. The river has supported a variety of people and diverse socio-cultural practices ranging from the relatively autonomous adivasi (tribal) settlements in the forests to non-tribal rural population. The Narmada basin extends over an area of 98,796  km2 and lies between 720 32 E to 810 45 E and 21o 20 N to 23o 45 N. The basin covers large areas in the states of Madhya Pradesh (86%), Gujarat (14%) and a comparatively smaller area (2%) in Maharashtra. In the river course of 1,312  km, there are 41 tributaries, out of which 22 are from the Satpuda range and the rest on the right bank are from the Vindhya range. The valley experiences extremes of hydrometeorological and climatic conditions with the upper catchment having an annual precipitation in the range of 1000  mm to 1850  mm and with half or even less than half in its lower regions (650  mm-750  mm); the diversity of vegetation from lush green in the upper region to dry deciduous teak forest vegetation in the lower region is testimony to this feature. The Narmada basin is drought affected and a large part of North Gujarat, Saurashtra and Kutch constitute semi-arid or arid regions on account of extreme unreliability of rainfall, rendering them chronically drought prone and subject to serious drinking water problems. Teak and Indias best hardwood forests are found in the Narmada River basin and they are much older than the ones in the Himalayas. The lower Narmada River Valley and the surrounding uplands, covering an area of 169,900  km2 consists of dry deciduous forests. The natural vegetation of the region is a three-tiered forest. Tectona grandis is the dominant canopy tree, in association with Diospyros melanoxylon, Dhaora (Anogeissus latifolia), and Boswellia serrata. Riperian areas along the regions rivers and streams, which receive year-round water, are home to moist evergreen forests. The ecoregion is home to 76 species of mammals and to 276 bird species none of which are endemic. According to the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), about 30% of the ecoregion is covered in relatively intact vegetation. The ecoregion includes some large blocks of habitat in the Vindhya and Satpura ranges. About 5% of the ecoregion lies within protected areas, including Bandhavgarh, Panna, and Sanjay National Parks. The valley has some of the important national parks and wild life sanctuaries. Kanha national park located in the upper reaches of Narmada, about 18  km from Mandla, boasts of several wild animals including the Tiger. Two tributaries of Narmada, namley, Hallon and Banjar, flow through this park. It is one of the best National Parks of Asia, which has been described vividly by Rudyard Kipling in his famous creation Jungle Book. Satpura National Park, set up in 1981, is located in Hoshangabad district of Madhya Pradesh and covers an area of 524  km2. Along with the adjoining Bori and Panchmarhi Sanctuaries, it constitutes an area of 1,427  km2 of unique Central Indian Highland ecosystem. Satpura National Park, being part of a unique ecosystem, is very rich in biodiversity. The fauna comprises tiger, leopard, sambar, chital, bhedki, nilgai, four-horned antelope, chinkora, bison (gour), wild boar, wild dog, bear, black bear, black buck, fox, porcupine, flying, mouse deer, Indian jo int squirrel etc. There are a variety of birds. Hornbills and peafowl are the common birds. The flora of the national park consists of mainly sal, teak, tendu, aonla, mohua, bel, bambo, and a variety of grasses and medicinal plants. Madla plant Fossil National park, Dindori National fossils park Ghughuya is situated in Din dori district of Madhya Pradesh in India. This national park has plants in fossil form that existed in India anywhere between 40 million and 150 million years ago spread over seven villages of Mandla District (Ghuguwa, Umaria, Deorakhurd, Barbaspur, Chanti-hills, Chargaon and Deori Kohani). The Mandla Plant Fossils National Park is an area that spreads over 274,100  m2. The Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve covers part of three civil districts viz., Hoshangabad, Betul and Chhindwara of Madhya Pradesh. The total area is 4926.28  km2. It envelops three wildlife conservation units viz., Bori Sanctuary (518.00 km ²), Satpura National Park (524.37  km2), and Pachmarhi Sanctuary (461.37  km2). Satpura National Park comprises the core zone and the remaining area of 4,501.91  km2, surrounding the core zone serves as buffer zone. The area comprises 511 villages. The area exhibits variety of geological rock and soil formations. There is a wide spectrum of floral and faunal features that occupy the Satpura conservation area. It is one of the oldest forest reserves, which has an established tradition of scientific management of forests. It constitutes a large contiguous forest block that harbours a community of plant and animal species typical of the central highland region. Of the 30 big dams proposed along the Narmada, Sardar Sarovar Project (SSP) and Narmada Sagar Project (NSP) are the mega dams. The Maheshwar and Omkareshwar dams along with SSP and NSP, are to form a complex which would ultimately cater to the needs of SSP. The struggle of the people of the Narmada valley against large dams began when the people to be displaced by SSP began organizing in 1985-86. Since then the struggle has spread to encompass other major dams in various stages of planning and construction chiefly Maheshwar, Narmada Sagar, Maan, Goi and Jobat. Tawa and Bargi Dams were completed in 1973 and 1989 respectively. Sardar Sarovar project The Sardar Sarovar Project (SSP) faced stiff opposition from the people right from the planning stage. The Narmada Bachao Andolan (Save the Narmada movement) has been at the forfront of this opposition and at one time the NBA was successful in stopping World Bank funding for the project. A number of cases were filed against the project. However, the Supreme Court of India in 2000 issued a final ruling allowing construction to proceed. It is estimated that nearly 200,000 people would be displaced to construct the reservoir and a large number of people will lose land or livelihood due to project activities. A majority of the displaced people are tribal people. Medha Patkar (born 1 December 1954 in Bombay) is the founder of the Narmada Bachao Andolan and has vowed to work for the displaced people. She is one of Indias most important environmental activists. Her uncompromising insistence on the right to life and livelihood has brought to the fore the basic questions of natural resources, human rights, environment, and developm

Biblical and Mythological Allusions in Moby Dick :: Moby Dick Essays

An allusion is a reference to a well-known person, place, event, literary work, or work of art.    Writers often use biblical and mythological allusions to which their readers are familiar.   In Moby Dick, Herman Melville frequently uses biblical and mythological allusions.   With these allusions the reader begins to understand the topic of discussion and is also exposed to the wisdom and knowledge Melville possess.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The first allusion appears in the first line of the novel.   â€Å"Call me Ishmael.† (Melville1).   Ishmael was the biblical son of Abraham and his servant Hagar.   He was disowned in favor of Isaac, Abraham’s son with his wife Sarah.   An angel prophesied to Hagar.   â€Å"his hand shall be against every man, and every man’s hand against him.† (Genesis 16:12).   The name â€Å"Ishmael† has since become used commonly for an outcast, which is appropriate since he is inexperienced when it comes to whaling and is viewed as AN outcast to the other sailors upon the Pequod.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Another biblical allusion is of the prophet Elijah and Captain Ahab.   Elijah WARNS Queequeg and Ishmael of Ahab.   Ishmael says he and Queequeg ARE boarding the Pequod because they have just â€Å"signed the articles† (Melville 68) and Elijah responds â€Å"Anything down there about your souls† (Melville 68).   This conflict between Elijah and Ahab goes all the way back to the bible.   I Kings describes the conflict between King Ahab and his wife Jezebel.   Elijah tells Ahab that â€Å"in the place where dogs licked the blood of Naboth shall dogs lick they blood, even thine,† (I Kings 21:19), and that â€Å"the dogs shall eat Jezebel by the wall of Jezrell† (I Kings 21:23).   This allusion is significant for foreshadowing the destruction of the Pequod.   In Moby Dick the characters names are not so different than names in the Bible and neither is the outcome of those characters so different.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Melville not only used a number of biblical allusions in Moby Dick, but he also used many mythological allusions.   He used Greek mythology in describing the tattooing on the Queequeg.   â€Å"The counterpane of the patchwork, full of odd little parti-colored squares and triangles, and this arm of his tattooed all over with an interminable Cretan labyrinth of a figure† (Melvine 19).   The Cretan labyrinth was the maze, which imprisoned the half-bull, half-human Minotaur.   This adds immensely to the visual imagery of Queequeg.   Being able to imagine this large, black harpoon with a   â€Å"Cretan labyrinth of a figure† (Melville 19) the reader has a more appealing and specific picture of him. Biblical and Mythological Allusions in Moby Dick :: Moby Dick Essays An allusion is a reference to a well-known person, place, event, literary work, or work of art.    Writers often use biblical and mythological allusions to which their readers are familiar.   In Moby Dick, Herman Melville frequently uses biblical and mythological allusions.   With these allusions the reader begins to understand the topic of discussion and is also exposed to the wisdom and knowledge Melville possess.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The first allusion appears in the first line of the novel.   â€Å"Call me Ishmael.† (Melville1).   Ishmael was the biblical son of Abraham and his servant Hagar.   He was disowned in favor of Isaac, Abraham’s son with his wife Sarah.   An angel prophesied to Hagar.   â€Å"his hand shall be against every man, and every man’s hand against him.† (Genesis 16:12).   The name â€Å"Ishmael† has since become used commonly for an outcast, which is appropriate since he is inexperienced when it comes to whaling and is viewed as AN outcast to the other sailors upon the Pequod.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Another biblical allusion is of the prophet Elijah and Captain Ahab.   Elijah WARNS Queequeg and Ishmael of Ahab.   Ishmael says he and Queequeg ARE boarding the Pequod because they have just â€Å"signed the articles† (Melville 68) and Elijah responds â€Å"Anything down there about your souls† (Melville 68).   This conflict between Elijah and Ahab goes all the way back to the bible.   I Kings describes the conflict between King Ahab and his wife Jezebel.   Elijah tells Ahab that â€Å"in the place where dogs licked the blood of Naboth shall dogs lick they blood, even thine,† (I Kings 21:19), and that â€Å"the dogs shall eat Jezebel by the wall of Jezrell† (I Kings 21:23).   This allusion is significant for foreshadowing the destruction of the Pequod.   In Moby Dick the characters names are not so different than names in the Bible and neither is the outcome of those characters so different.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Melville not only used a number of biblical allusions in Moby Dick, but he also used many mythological allusions.   He used Greek mythology in describing the tattooing on the Queequeg.   â€Å"The counterpane of the patchwork, full of odd little parti-colored squares and triangles, and this arm of his tattooed all over with an interminable Cretan labyrinth of a figure† (Melvine 19).   The Cretan labyrinth was the maze, which imprisoned the half-bull, half-human Minotaur.   This adds immensely to the visual imagery of Queequeg.   Being able to imagine this large, black harpoon with a   â€Å"Cretan labyrinth of a figure† (Melville 19) the reader has a more appealing and specific picture of him.

Were the Allies Justified in Bombing German Cities?

The sole purpose in the role of the country is to protect the citizens of the nation; that is exactly what Great Britain did for its nation and for the end of World War II. Great Britain had to do what was best for the country and should be justified as a result from the bombing of the German cities in account of the nation’s pride, a misinterpreted perception of morals and also due to being forced into a tight situation. Although the casualties and negative impact that Germany faced, Britain’s actions in bombing the German cities should be justified due to the position they were in. Britain did not want to allow Germany to walk all over their nation that they had taken pride of and knew the consequences of the possible outcomes if they had not acted against Germany. People of Great Britain would be hurt and the country had just wanted to protect its citizens (Document 5). Britain saw that there would have been a larger negative effect if they had not bombed the German cities compared to if they did. They perceived the bombing to have been a last chance to end the war. After the conflict between Russia and Germany, the Allies had seen Germany’s air force as a ‘Achilles heel’ which resulted in the bombing (Document 4). If they had not acted against Germany, Operation Sea Lion would have continued to commence and casualties would most likely have resulted the same towards the British (textbook p. 229). The product of Germany’s determination to take over Great Britain would have meant to enable Hitler to have full control over Europe. We would think that the countries would play along the rules implied in the war between the countries but that would be another sad misunderstood perception. From the beginning of the war, there was no real perception to what was wrong or right; there were no morals once a country entered the war because they must do whatever precautions they would do for the best of their country. This is exactly what Great Britain did. Their actions should not even be justified compared to Hitler’s past decisions and false promises he had made with the Allies. The war itself had no limits because Hitler had already surpassed them all. The fault of Hitler’s decisions was taken upon the citizens of Poland when Hitler decided to backstab a nation and take over the country (Textbook). Because of the false promises that were not lived up to, the trust between the Allies and Germany slowly slipped further away. Even though attacking them was not the best method, it was the only thing to do for the sake of the nation. They were merely giving Germany a taste of its own medicine due to the past decisions made by Hitler. â€Å"Don’t talk to me about morality in war, there is no such thing† is quoted from a soldier from the Bomber Command veterans in 1975. This represents how nobody considers what is right or wrong in war and how they would sacrifice anything to do what is best for the nation (Document 8). Even if they did have a fair understanding of morals, they still had to consider the consequences if they had not shot for the opportunity. In any difficult circumstances, a country must look past the harsh side effects and do what is best for its nation despite of it. The Allies were put into a tight situation and could not just stand by and watch their country take the negative impact by Hitler’s actions. The one who had made the first move was Germany as they attacked Britain by sending plans to bomb London in order to seize control over the country. Germany is to blame for the reasoning behind the initiation of Great Britain’s actions towards them (textbook p. 228). Britain could not just sit back and watch so naturally, they returned the favour that they given them; this would give them fair ground that they deserved in their stance. As a natural human reaction, they retaliated against the Germans and fought back which resulted into the bombing of the German cities (Document 6). Hitler should be at fault to put the civilians through the wrath of the British and should be the right to blame rather than the country that is merely defending itself (Document 7).

Fish Anatomy

FISHERIES BIOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT External Fish Anatomy The following illustration of a largemouth bass shows some of the common external features that are used to describe the differences among fish species. Fish are animals that are cold-blooded, have fins and a backbone. Most fish have scales and breathe with gills. There are about 22,000 species of fish that began evolving around 480 million years ago. The largemouth billustrated abovethe typical torplike (fusiform) shape associated with many fishes used by the fish to maintain its position, move, steer and stop.They are either single fins alonthe centerline of the fish, such as the dorsal (back) fins, caudal (tail) fin and anal fin, or paired fins, which include the pectoral (chest) and pelvic (hip) fins. Fishes such as catfish have another fleshy lobe behind the dorsal fin, called an adipose (fat) fin that is not illustrated here. The dorsal and anal fins primarily help fish to not roll over onto their sides. The caudal fin is t he main fin for propulsion to move the fish forward. The paired fins assist with steering, stoppingand hovering.Scales in most bony fishes (most freshwater fishes other than gar that have ganoid scales, and catfish which have no scales) are either ctenoid or cycloid. Ctenoid scales have jagged edges and cycloid have smooth rounded edges. Ctenii are tiny, comblike projections on the exposed (posterior) edge of ctenoid scales. Bass and most other fish with spines have ctenoid scales composed of connective tissue covered with calcium. Most fishes also have a very important mucus layer covering the body that helps prevent infection.Anglers should be careful not to rub this â€Å"slime† off when handling a fish that is to be released. Maryland Envirothon 1 In many freshwater fishes the fins are supported by spines that are rigid and may be quite sharp thus playing a defensive role. Catfish have notably hard sharp fins that anglers should be wary of. The soft dorsal and caudal fins are composed of rays, as are portions of other fins. Rays are less rigid and frequently branched. The gills are the breathing apparatus of fish and are highly vascularized giving them their bright red cover.An operculum (gill cover) that is a flexible bony plate protects the sensitive gills. Water is â€Å"inhaled† through the mouth, passes over the gills and â€Å"exhaled† from beneath the operculum. Fish see through their eyes and can detect color. The eyes are rounder in fish than mammals because of the refractive index of water and focus is achieved by mthe lens in and out, not distorting it as in mammals. water and can be quite sensitive. Eels and catfish have particularly well developed senses of smell. larger it is the bigger the prey it can consume.Fish hava sense of taste and may sample items to taste them before swallowing if they are not obvious prey items. Some are primmostly other fish). The imported grass carp is one of the few large fishes that are prim arily herbivorous (eating plants). Fish may or may not have teeth depending on the species. Fishchain pickerel and gar have obvious canine-shaped teeth. Other fish have less obvious teeth, such as the cardiform teeth in catfish which feel like a roughened area at the front of the mouthor vomerine teeth that are tiny patches of teeth, for example, in the roof of a striped bass' mouth.Grass carp and other minnows have pharyngeal teeth modified from their gill arches for grinding that are located in the throat. that are open to the water through a series of pores (creating a line along the side of the fish). The lateral line primarily senses water currents and pressure, and movement in the water. immediately in front of the anal fin. are used to describe the differences between fish that are described in more detail below. Maryland Envirothon 2 front of thhollow and house and protect the delicate spinal cord. SPINAL CORD: Cbrain, as well as in BRAIN: Thbehaviors processed here.LATERAL LINEOsense organs; detectunderwater vibrations and is capable of determinthe direction of their source. (See Issue 8 of The City Fisher for minformation. ) SWIM (or AIRBLA hollow, gas-fillbalance organ a fish to conserve energyby maintaining neutral buoyancy (suspending) in water. Fish caught fromvery deep water sometimes need to have air releasreleased and return to deep water, dusurface. Species of fish that do not possess a swim bladder sink to the bottom if they stop swimming. GILLS: Aif the fishKIDNEY: ed from their swim bladder before they can be idney is alsbody, allowing certain fish species to exist in freshwater or saltwater, and in some cases (such assnook or tarpon) both. Maryland Envirothon 3 STOMACH AND INTESTINES: Break down (digest) fo Fish such as tilapia that are herbivomatter is usually tough and fibrous and more difficult to break down into usable components. A great deal about fish feeding habits can be determined by examining stomach contents. PYLORIC CAECA: Th is organ with fingerlike projections is located near the junction of the stomach and theindigestion, may functio VENT: The site of waste elimination from the fish’s body.LIVER: This important organ has a number of functions. It abrimportantas playing a role in nitrogen (waste) excretion. HEART: Circulates blood throughout the body. Oxygen avakidneys an GONADS (REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS): In adult female bass, the bright oranbufertilizing the eggs, are much smaller and wh(or roe) of certain fish are considered a delicacy, as in the case of caviar from sturgeon. MUSCLES: Provide movement and locomotion. This is the part of the fish that is usually eaten, and Measuring a Fish of the fish with the mouth closed and the tail fin aying along a tape measure, then pinch the tail fin closed and determine the total length, do NOT pull a flexible tape measure along the curve of the fish. Conversely, most marine (saltwater regulations) refer to the â€Å"fork length†, and scientists ofte nuse â€Å"standard length† which is to the end of the fleshy part of t Maryland Envirothon 4 aby minor damage to the tanor does it give too much creditto a fish for the relatively light weight tail when calculatingfish's condition. â€Å"Girth† is best measured with a fabric ruler, such as tailors use.It can also be determined by drawing a string around the fish at its widest point marking wherethe string overlaps and then mthe overlapping points on a conventional ruler. Knowing thegirth is important when tryingcertify a fish for a record, and provides useful information Using total length and girth you can get a rough estimate of a fish's weight using various formulas. Length-Weight Formulas to Estimate Fish Weights biologists use. The equation is: Log (weight in grams)= -4. 83 + 1. 923 x Log (total length in millimeters) + 1. 57 x Log (girthmillimeters). A 22†³ long bass w A quick, though very rough, estimate of torpedo shaped fish like young bass can be obtain ed by using: Total Length (in inches)-squared, times girth (in inches) divided by 1200. A 22†³ long Another common option used for estimating bass weights is: Girth (in inches)-squared, times length (in inches) divided by 800. A 22†³ long bass with a girth of 15 How Fish Swim alternately on each side first toward one side and then toward the other, results in a series of waves traveling down the fish's body.The rear part of each wave thrusts against the water and propels the fish forward. Maryland Envirothon 5 This type of movement is quite clearly seen in the freshwater eel. Because movement of the head back and forth exerts drag, which consumes additional energy and slows travel, a great many fishes have modified this snakelike motion by keeping the waves very small along most of thelength of the body, in some cases showing no obvious movement at all, and then increasing them sharply in the tail region.It is the end of the traveling waves that moves the tail forcefully b ackand forth, providing the main propulsion for forward motion. A simpler form of tail propulsion seen in such inflexible-bodied fishes as the trunkfish, which simply alternates contractions of all the muscle blocks on one side of the body with those on the other side, causing the tail to move from side to side like a sculling paddle. Some of the predatory bony fishes are the fastest swimmers; they can cruise at speeds that are between three and six times their body lele0. 8 km/hr (0. mph), swim very slowly; others, such as the salmon, which may reach a sustainespeed of 13 km/hr (8 mph), move much faster; and it has been estimated that tuna may reach speeds of 80 km/hr (50 mph), and swordfish, 97 km/hr (60 mph). Introduction to Aging Fish: What Are Otoliths? directly behind the brain of bony fishes. There are three types of o 1. Sagitta—the largest of the 3 pairs of otoliths; involved in the detection of sound and process of hear 3. Lapillus—involved in the detection o f gravitational force and sound (Popper and Lu 2000) re are many different shapes and sizes of otoliths differenOtoliths are important to scientific age and growth studies. This figure shows the growth rings of a sagittal otolith section viewed under reflective light. The darker area or â€Å"translucent zone† represents a period of fast growth. The whiter area or â€Å"opaquezone† represents a period of slower growth. The age of the fish is estimated by counting the annuli, or opaque bands, of the thin sections, as one would count rings on a tree to determine its age. Maryland Envirothon 6 Before age data can be used, the method of estimating age by counting annuli must be validated for each species to which it is applied.There are several ways to validate age, or prove that â€Å"one annulus is equal to one year. † Most obvious might be to simply rear fish from spawn, sacrifice the fish after a few years, and compare the number of rings to the known age of tho se fish. This process can be time consuming and expensive. It also creates the possibility of abnormal growth patterns caused by laboratory settings (Campana, 2001). Although this method may not be practical for validating annular ring formation, a similar method is effective in validating daily ring formation (Campana and Neilson, 1985).To avoid the effects of long-term laboratory exposure, tag and release of wild fish can be useful in validating annulus deposition. This figure shows the fluorescent tag of a common snook otolith. A captured common snook was injected with oxytetracycline (OTC), a chemical that is incorporated into calcium-rich structures including otoliths. The fish was then tagged and released. Seven years later, the fish was recaptured, sacrificed, and processed for aging. The OTC, which binds to the calcium in the otolith, appears as a glowing band when the otolith is viewed using fluorescence microscopy.The number of annuli between capture and recapture is also seven. Information like this is key to linking a single annulus to one year of growth, but such information relies heavily on time and chance. The age data gathered from otolith examinations allow scientists to model growth rates, maximum age, age at maturity, and the trend of future generations. Literature Referenced Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. http://www. floridamarine. org/features/view_article. asp? id=21978 and http://myfwc. com/Fishing/Fishes/anatomy. html. Fish and Wildlife Research Fish Anatomy FISHERIES BIOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT External Fish Anatomy The following illustration of a largemouth bass shows some of the common external features that are used to describe the differences among fish species. Fish are animals that are cold-blooded, have fins and a backbone. Most fish have scales and breathe with gills. There are about 22,000 species of fish that began evolving around 480 million years ago. The largemouth billustrated abovethe typical torplike (fusiform) shape associated with many fishes used by the fish to maintain its position, move, steer and stop.They are either single fins alonthe centerline of the fish, such as the dorsal (back) fins, caudal (tail) fin and anal fin, or paired fins, which include the pectoral (chest) and pelvic (hip) fins. Fishes such as catfish have another fleshy lobe behind the dorsal fin, called an adipose (fat) fin that is not illustrated here. The dorsal and anal fins primarily help fish to not roll over onto their sides. The caudal fin is t he main fin for propulsion to move the fish forward. The paired fins assist with steering, stoppingand hovering.Scales in most bony fishes (most freshwater fishes other than gar that have ganoid scales, and catfish which have no scales) are either ctenoid or cycloid. Ctenoid scales have jagged edges and cycloid have smooth rounded edges. Ctenii are tiny, comblike projections on the exposed (posterior) edge of ctenoid scales. Bass and most other fish with spines have ctenoid scales composed of connective tissue covered with calcium. Most fishes also have a very important mucus layer covering the body that helps prevent infection.Anglers should be careful not to rub this â€Å"slime† off when handling a fish that is to be released. Maryland Envirothon 1 In many freshwater fishes the fins are supported by spines that are rigid and may be quite sharp thus playing a defensive role. Catfish have notably hard sharp fins that anglers should be wary of. The soft dorsal and caudal fins are composed of rays, as are portions of other fins. Rays are less rigid and frequently branched. The gills are the breathing apparatus of fish and are highly vascularized giving them their bright red cover.An operculum (gill cover) that is a flexible bony plate protects the sensitive gills. Water is â€Å"inhaled† through the mouth, passes over the gills and â€Å"exhaled† from beneath the operculum. Fish see through their eyes and can detect color. The eyes are rounder in fish than mammals because of the refractive index of water and focus is achieved by mthe lens in and out, not distorting it as in mammals. water and can be quite sensitive. Eels and catfish have particularly well developed senses of smell. larger it is the bigger the prey it can consume.Fish hava sense of taste and may sample items to taste them before swallowing if they are not obvious prey items. Some are primmostly other fish). The imported grass carp is one of the few large fishes that are prim arily herbivorous (eating plants). Fish may or may not have teeth depending on the species. Fishchain pickerel and gar have obvious canine-shaped teeth. Other fish have less obvious teeth, such as the cardiform teeth in catfish which feel like a roughened area at the front of the mouthor vomerine teeth that are tiny patches of teeth, for example, in the roof of a striped bass' mouth.Grass carp and other minnows have pharyngeal teeth modified from their gill arches for grinding that are located in the throat. that are open to the water through a series of pores (creating a line along the side of the fish). The lateral line primarily senses water currents and pressure, and movement in the water. immediately in front of the anal fin. are used to describe the differences between fish that are described in more detail below. Maryland Envirothon 2 front of thhollow and house and protect the delicate spinal cord. SPINAL CORD: Cbrain, as well as in BRAIN: Thbehaviors processed here.LATERAL LINEOsense organs; detectunderwater vibrations and is capable of determinthe direction of their source. (See Issue 8 of The City Fisher for minformation. ) SWIM (or AIRBLA hollow, gas-fillbalance organ a fish to conserve energyby maintaining neutral buoyancy (suspending) in water. Fish caught fromvery deep water sometimes need to have air releasreleased and return to deep water, dusurface. Species of fish that do not possess a swim bladder sink to the bottom if they stop swimming. GILLS: Aif the fishKIDNEY: ed from their swim bladder before they can be idney is alsbody, allowing certain fish species to exist in freshwater or saltwater, and in some cases (such assnook or tarpon) both. Maryland Envirothon 3 STOMACH AND INTESTINES: Break down (digest) fo Fish such as tilapia that are herbivomatter is usually tough and fibrous and more difficult to break down into usable components. A great deal about fish feeding habits can be determined by examining stomach contents. PYLORIC CAECA: Th is organ with fingerlike projections is located near the junction of the stomach and theindigestion, may functio VENT: The site of waste elimination from the fish’s body.LIVER: This important organ has a number of functions. It abrimportantas playing a role in nitrogen (waste) excretion. HEART: Circulates blood throughout the body. Oxygen avakidneys an GONADS (REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS): In adult female bass, the bright oranbufertilizing the eggs, are much smaller and wh(or roe) of certain fish are considered a delicacy, as in the case of caviar from sturgeon. MUSCLES: Provide movement and locomotion. This is the part of the fish that is usually eaten, and Measuring a Fish of the fish with the mouth closed and the tail fin aying along a tape measure, then pinch the tail fin closed and determine the total length, do NOT pull a flexible tape measure along the curve of the fish. Conversely, most marine (saltwater regulations) refer to the â€Å"fork length†, and scientists ofte nuse â€Å"standard length† which is to the end of the fleshy part of t Maryland Envirothon 4 aby minor damage to the tanor does it give too much creditto a fish for the relatively light weight tail when calculatingfish's condition. â€Å"Girth† is best measured with a fabric ruler, such as tailors use.It can also be determined by drawing a string around the fish at its widest point marking wherethe string overlaps and then mthe overlapping points on a conventional ruler. Knowing thegirth is important when tryingcertify a fish for a record, and provides useful information Using total length and girth you can get a rough estimate of a fish's weight using various formulas. Length-Weight Formulas to Estimate Fish Weights biologists use. The equation is: Log (weight in grams)= -4. 83 + 1. 923 x Log (total length in millimeters) + 1. 57 x Log (girthmillimeters). A 22†³ long bass w A quick, though very rough, estimate of torpedo shaped fish like young bass can be obtain ed by using: Total Length (in inches)-squared, times girth (in inches) divided by 1200. A 22†³ long Another common option used for estimating bass weights is: Girth (in inches)-squared, times length (in inches) divided by 800. A 22†³ long bass with a girth of 15 How Fish Swim alternately on each side first toward one side and then toward the other, results in a series of waves traveling down the fish's body.The rear part of each wave thrusts against the water and propels the fish forward. Maryland Envirothon 5 This type of movement is quite clearly seen in the freshwater eel. Because movement of the head back and forth exerts drag, which consumes additional energy and slows travel, a great many fishes have modified this snakelike motion by keeping the waves very small along most of thelength of the body, in some cases showing no obvious movement at all, and then increasing them sharply in the tail region.It is the end of the traveling waves that moves the tail forcefully b ackand forth, providing the main propulsion for forward motion. A simpler form of tail propulsion seen in such inflexible-bodied fishes as the trunkfish, which simply alternates contractions of all the muscle blocks on one side of the body with those on the other side, causing the tail to move from side to side like a sculling paddle. Some of the predatory bony fishes are the fastest swimmers; they can cruise at speeds that are between three and six times their body lele0. 8 km/hr (0. mph), swim very slowly; others, such as the salmon, which may reach a sustainespeed of 13 km/hr (8 mph), move much faster; and it has been estimated that tuna may reach speeds of 80 km/hr (50 mph), and swordfish, 97 km/hr (60 mph). Introduction to Aging Fish: What Are Otoliths? directly behind the brain of bony fishes. There are three types of o 1. Sagitta—the largest of the 3 pairs of otoliths; involved in the detection of sound and process of hear 3. Lapillus—involved in the detection o f gravitational force and sound (Popper and Lu 2000) re are many different shapes and sizes of otoliths differenOtoliths are important to scientific age and growth studies. This figure shows the growth rings of a sagittal otolith section viewed under reflective light. The darker area or â€Å"translucent zone† represents a period of fast growth. The whiter area or â€Å"opaquezone† represents a period of slower growth. The age of the fish is estimated by counting the annuli, or opaque bands, of the thin sections, as one would count rings on a tree to determine its age. Maryland Envirothon 6 Before age data can be used, the method of estimating age by counting annuli must be validated for each species to which it is applied.There are several ways to validate age, or prove that â€Å"one annulus is equal to one year. † Most obvious might be to simply rear fish from spawn, sacrifice the fish after a few years, and compare the number of rings to the known age of tho se fish. This process can be time consuming and expensive. It also creates the possibility of abnormal growth patterns caused by laboratory settings (Campana, 2001). Although this method may not be practical for validating annular ring formation, a similar method is effective in validating daily ring formation (Campana and Neilson, 1985).To avoid the effects of long-term laboratory exposure, tag and release of wild fish can be useful in validating annulus deposition. This figure shows the fluorescent tag of a common snook otolith. A captured common snook was injected with oxytetracycline (OTC), a chemical that is incorporated into calcium-rich structures including otoliths. The fish was then tagged and released. Seven years later, the fish was recaptured, sacrificed, and processed for aging. The OTC, which binds to the calcium in the otolith, appears as a glowing band when the otolith is viewed using fluorescence microscopy.The number of annuli between capture and recapture is also seven. Information like this is key to linking a single annulus to one year of growth, but such information relies heavily on time and chance. The age data gathered from otolith examinations allow scientists to model growth rates, maximum age, age at maturity, and the trend of future generations. Literature Referenced Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. http://www. floridamarine. org/features/view_article. asp? id=21978 and http://myfwc. com/Fishing/Fishes/anatomy. html. Fish and Wildlife Research